Daily Current Affairs - 8th, 9th & 10th April 2026
- Kaushal
- 6 days ago
- 23 min read
Updated: 4 days ago
Comprehensive UPSC Current Affairs Summary | Qeshm Island Desalination Strike & Strait of Hormuz Significance, US–Iran Ceasefire Developments, Land Inequality in India Report, National Quantum Mission’s 1,000-km Secure Communication, Partnership for Healthy Cities Summit 2026, Sundarbans Climate Vulnerability, Pair-Instability Supernova Discovery, Post-Quantum Cryptography Roadmap, Pulsar-Based Distance Measurement, India’s Global Renewable Energy Ranking, ICAR Agricultural Resilience Task Force, HFC Phase-Down under Kigali Amendment, Biomass Co-Firing Rules for TPPs, Women’s Credit Market Report, Skills Outcomes Fund Initiative and more.
Table of Content
INTERNATIONAL
Qeshm Island
US- Iran ceasefire
ECONOMY
PLISFPI and Food Processing Sector in India
POLITY
Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) – Removal Process
SOCIAL ISSUES
Land Inequality in India – World Inequality Lab Report
SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENT
National Quantum Mission & Quantum Communication
PHC Summit 2026 & NCDs
Lakes of Jammu and Kashmir
National Repository for Deep-Sea Fauna
Sundarbans and Critical Slowing Down
Supernova and Pair-Instability Supernova
Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Roadmap
Pulsars and New Distance Measurement Technique
India’s Renewable Energy Status and Global Position
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
Gourami Fossils Discovery
India’s Move to Phase Down HFCs
Environmental (Utilisation of Crop Residue by TPPs) Rules, 2023
Elephanta Island Reservoir Discovery
Hydro Electric Projects in Arunachal Pradesh
Exercise Cyclone-IV
SCHEMES
Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) Scheme
MISCELLANY
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI)
Women in India’s Evolving Credit Market
Skills Outcomes Fund (SOF)
Qeshm Island
Iran’s Qeshm Island desalination plant out of service since early March strike.
Qeshm Island (Iran)
Location: Lies near Bandar Abbas, separated by Khuran (Clarence) Strait.
Largest island in the Persian Gulf.
Strategic Importance: Close to Strait of Hormuz , critical global oil shipping route, provides Iran strategic leverage over maritime traffic.
Terrain: Rocky coastline with sandy bays & mudflats.
US- Iran ceasefire
Recently US and Iran announced a 2 week ceasefire.
As part of the deal Iran agreed to temporarily reopen the strait of Hormuz
Iran has finalised a 10 point plan for acceptance of war’s conclusion
Eg. continued Iranian control on Strait of Hormuz, US withdrawal from middle east etc.
About strait of Hormuz
Connects Persian Gulf with Gulf of Oman and Arabian Sea.
Energy transit hub: 20% of the world’s oil passes through it.
About 40% of India's crude oil imports, over 50% of its LNG imports, and 90% of its LPG imports transit through the strait
PLISFPI and Food Processing Sector in India
The Production Linked Incentive Scheme for Food Processing Industry (PLISFPI), implemented in 2021–22 by the Ministry of Food Processing Industries, has recorded 10.58% growth in sales of supported products, indicating strong performance in boosting the food processing sector.
Key Components of PLISFPI
The scheme supports food manufacturing incentives, focusing on products such as Ready-to-Cook/Ready-to-Eat items (including millets), processed fruits and vegetables, marine products, and mozzarella cheese, thereby strengthening value addition in agriculture.
It also provides support for SMEs (Small and Medium Enterprises) by incentivising innovative and organic products, including items like free-range eggs and poultry, promoting diversification and sustainability.
Additionally, PLISFPI promotes branding and marketing abroad, enabling Indian food brands to expand globally through support for international marketing and brand building.
About PLISFPI
PLISFPI is a Central Sector Scheme (fully funded and implemented by the central government) under the Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI).
The scheme has a total outlay of ₹10,900 crore and is implemented over a 6-year period (2021–22 to 2026–27).
Its objectives include creating global food manufacturing champions, promoting Indian food brands internationally, generating off-farm employment, and ensuring better prices for farmers leading to higher incomes.
Food Processing Sector in India
The food processing sector involves the transformation of raw agricultural products into consumable food items using physical, chemical, and mechanical processes, enhancing shelf life, safety, and quality of food.
This sector plays a crucial role in meeting the demands of a growing population and improving value addition in agriculture.
According to the Annual Survey of Industries (ASI), the sector’s Gross Value Added (GVA—contribution to the economy) increased from ₹1.61 lakh crore (2015–16) to ₹1.92 lakh crore (2022–23).
It recorded an Average Annual Growth Rate (AAGR) of around 5.35% over the last 8 years, indicating steady expansion.
Employment in the sector also increased from 17.73 lakh (2014–15) to 20.68 lakh (2021–22), reflecting its role in job creation.
Other Government Initiatives
Key initiatives supporting the sector include PM Kisan SAMPADA Yojana (PMKSY—scheme for agro-processing and infrastructure development), Pradhan Mantri Formalisation of Micro Food Processing Enterprises (PMFME—support for small food processors), and the Mega Food Parks Scheme (cluster-based food processing infrastructure development).
Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) – Removal Process
The Chairman of Rajya Sabha and the Speaker of Lok Sabha have rejected the notice of an impeachment motion against the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC), highlighting the procedural safeguards involved in such actions.
About the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC)
Under Article 324 of the Constitution of India (which vests the superintendence, direction, and control of elections in the Election Commission), the CEC enjoys strong security of tenure.
The Constitution provides that the CEC can be removed only in the same manner and on the same grounds as a judge of the Supreme Court of India, ensuring independence from executive influence.
Removal (Impeachment-like) Process of CEC
A removal motion (formal proposal to remove an official) stating the grounds such as proved misbehaviour or incapacity can be introduced in either House of Parliament.
The Speaker of Lok Sabha or Chairman of Rajya Sabha has the authority to either admit or reject the motion, acting as an initial filter.
If the motion is admitted, a three-member inquiry committee (a panel constituted to investigate allegations) is formed to examine the charges against the CEC.
If the committee finds the CEC guilty of proved misbehaviour or incapacity, the motion must then be passed by both Houses of Parliament with a special majority (majority of total membership plus two-thirds of members present and voting).
After the motion is passed by both Houses, the President of India issues the final removal order, completing the constitutional process.
Land Inequality in India – World Inequality Lab Report
The World Inequality Lab released a report titled “Land inequality in India: Nature, history, and markets”, based on data from ten major Indian states covering about 75% of the rural population, highlighting deep structural disparities in land ownership.
Key Findings of the Report
The report reveals extreme wealth concentration, where the top 10% of rural households own 44% of total land, indicating high inequality in asset distribution.
At the same time, there is widespread landlessness, with nearly 46% of rural households owning no land at all, reflecting economic vulnerability.
The village-level land Gini coefficient (a measure of inequality where higher values indicate greater inequality) is very high at 71.1, showing severe concentration of land ownership.
In a typical village, the largest landholder controls about 12.4% of total land, indicating dominance by a few individuals.
There are strong regional disparities, with Kerala showing the highest inequality (Gini coefficient ~90), while Karnataka and Rajasthan have relatively lower inequality (below 65).
In terms of landlessness, Punjab records the highest rate at 73%, highlighting regional variations in access to land.
Key Drivers of Land Inequality
Natural factors such as high agricultural productivity can encourage expansion of large landholdings, pushing smaller farmers out and increasing landlessness.
Historical factors play a major role, as regions under the zamindari system (colonial landlord-based land tenure system) exhibit higher inequality compared to former princely states, where land relations differed.
Additionally, social stratification means villages with higher proportions of Scheduled Castes (SCs) experience greater inequality due to historical land deprivation.
Market forces and economic integration (connectivity to towns, highways, railways, banks, and mandis—agricultural markets) also contribute to inequality by increasing land value and incentivising small farmers to sell land to larger landowners.
This shift occurs because non-agricultural opportunities become more attractive, making small-scale farming less viable and accelerating land concentration.
Steps Taken to Reduce Land Inequality in India
After Independence, land reforms such as abolition of intermediaries (ending the zamindari system), land ceiling laws (limits on land ownership), and tenancy reforms (granting ownership rights to cultivators) were introduced to reduce inequality.
The Bhoodan and Gramdan Movements, led by Vinoba Bhave in 1951, encouraged voluntary land donation by large landowners for redistribution.
The Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme (DILRMP) aims to digitise and modernise land records, improving transparency, as seen in initiatives like the Bhoomi Project in Karnataka.
The Forest Rights Act, 2006 recognises the land rights of forest-dwelling and tribal communities, addressing historical injustices.
The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 ensures fair compensation and rehabilitation for land acquisition, making the process more equitable.
National Quantum Mission & Quantum Communication
Under the National Quantum Mission, India has achieved 1,000-km secure quantum communication using Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) (a method of securely sharing encryption keys using quantum principles), marking one of the longest QKD deployments globally and a major milestone in secure communication technology.
This advancement is expected to significantly enhance secure communication across defence, financial systems, and critical infrastructure, where data protection is crucial.
Difference between Classical and Quantum Communication
In classical communication, information is carried by bits (binary digits with definite values of 0 or 1), whereas in quantum communication, information is carried by qubits (quantum bits that can exist in superposition—a combination of 0 and 1 simultaneously).
Classical information can be copied and read repeatedly without loss, while quantum communication follows the no-cloning theorem (principle that prevents copying of unknown quantum states), meaning quantum signals cannot be duplicated or amplified using conventional methods.
In classical systems, observation does not alter information, whereas in quantum systems, measuring a qubit changes its state, enabling detection of any eavesdropping attempt.
What is Quantum Communication?
Quantum communication refers to the encoding and transmission of information between distant quantum systems, using principles of quantum mechanics.
It relies on phenomena such as Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), where secure encryption keys are generated and shared, ensuring that any interception attempt is detectable due to disturbance in quantum states.
The medium used is typically light in the form of single photons (individual particles of light), enabling fast, efficient, and low-error communication similar to optical fiber systems.
About National Quantum Mission
The National Quantum Mission (NQM) was launched by the Department of Science and Technology for the period 2023–24 to 2030–31, aiming to position India as a leader in quantum technologies.
One of its key objectives is to develop intermediate-scale quantum computers (computers capable of handling complex quantum computations beyond classical limits).
It also aims to establish 2,000-km satellite-based quantum-secure communication networks, expanding secure communication infrastructure.
Additionally, the mission focuses on developing highly sensitive quantum devices such as magnetometers (measure magnetic fields), gravity sensors (detect gravitational variations), and atomic clocks (ultra-precise timekeeping devices).
Another objective is to develop next-generation quantum materials, including superconductors (materials with zero electrical resistance), advanced semiconductor structures, and topological materials (materials with unique quantum properties).
PHC Summit 2026 & NCDs
The 2026 Partnership for Healthy Cities (PHC) Summit was held in Rio de Janeiro, bringing together health officials, urban planners, and global experts from 55 cities to renew commitments for accelerating life-saving actions in urban areas.
The Partnership for Healthy Cities (PHC) is a global network of 74 cities focused on preventing Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) and injuries, with Indian cities like Mumbai, Ahmedabad, and Bengaluru participating in the initiative.
Under PHC, each participating city adopts one of 15 evidence-based interventions (proven strategies) aimed at reducing NCDs and injury-related risks.
About Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)
Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) are chronic diseases (long-term conditions) that are not transmitted from person to person, such as heart disease or diabetes.
These diseases arise due to multiple risk factors, including behavioural factors like tobacco use, unhealthy diets (high salt, sugar, fats), alcohol abuse, and physical inactivity.
They are also influenced by metabolic factors such as hypertension (high blood pressure), obesity, diabetes, and high cholesterol, which increase disease risk.
Additionally, environmental factors like air pollution, chemical exposure, and noise pollution contribute significantly to the burden of NCDs.
Globally, over 80% of deaths (more than 47 million annually) are attributed to NCDs and injuries, making them the leading cause of mortality.
The four major NCDs responsible for most deaths are cardiovascular diseases (heart attacks and strokes), cancers, chronic respiratory diseases, and diabetes.
Notably, over 80% of premature NCD deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries, indicating unequal health outcomes globally.
India’s Initiatives to Tackle NCDs
India has implemented the National Programme for Prevention and Control of NCDs (NP-NCD) to strengthen healthcare systems, enable early diagnosis, train personnel, and promote awareness.
The introduction of Sugar Boards in schools (mandated by CBSE) helps educate students by displaying recommended daily sugar intake and sugar content in common foods, promoting healthier choices.
Lifestyle-focused campaigns such as Eat Right India, Fit India Movement, and Yoga initiatives aim to encourage healthy living and behavioural change.
Additionally, under the Strengthening of Tertiary Cancer Care Centres Facilities Scheme, the government provides financial assistance up to ₹120 crore for State Cancer Institutes (SCIs) and up to ₹45 crore for Tertiary Cancer Care Centres (TCCCs) to improve advanced healthcare infrastructure.
Lakes of Jammu and Kashmir
Comptroller and Auditor General of India highlighted severe ecological decline in lakes of Jammu and Kashmir over past decade.
Out of total 697 lakes, 315 have disappeared, 203 lakes have shrunk, and total 518 lakes degraded.
Lakes of Jammu and Kashmir
Dal Lake: Urban lake in Srinagar, having floating gardens called Raad.
Wular Lake: Second largest freshwater lake of Asia with Jhelum River as its main source. Situated on foothills of Haramuk Mountain.
Hokersar Lake: Known as Queen of Wetlands, it is a sanctuary for migratory birds.
Manasbal Lake: Mughal Garden called the Jaroka, built by Nur Jahan overlooks the lake.
National Repository for Deep-Sea Fauna
The Government has notified “Bhavasagara” Referral Centre and the Agharkar Research Institute as National Repositories for Deep-Sea Fauna under the Biological Diversity Act, 2002, strengthening India’s capacity for marine biodiversity conservation and research.
The “Bhavasagara” Referral Centre, located at the Centre for Marine Living Resources and Ecology in Kochi, houses over 3,500 taxonomically identified (scientifically classified) and geo-referenced (location-tagged) voucher specimens (preserved reference samples for study) of marine organisms.
The Agharkar Research Institute (Pune) contributes through its collection of microorganisms and the National Fungal Culture Collection, supporting microbial biodiversity preservation.
Under the Biological Diversity Act, 2002, these repositories will securely preserve biological samples, act as custodians of newly discovered deep-sea species, and build expertise in deep-sea taxonomy (classification of marine organisms), aligning with the UN Decade of Ocean Science (2021–2030).
About the Deep Sea
The deep sea refers to ocean regions below 200 meters depth, extending from the twilight zone (region with minimal sunlight) to the abyssal plains and deep seabed (dark, high-pressure ocean floor regions).
It is considered the oldest and largest biome on Earth, comprising nearly 90–95% of Earth’s habitable space, making it critical for biodiversity and ecological balance.
Global Frameworks for Marine Protection
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides the global legal framework for protecting the marine environment and ensuring equitable use of ocean resources.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) promotes the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of biological resources, and fair sharing of benefits from genetic resources.
The Sustainable Development Goal 14 (SDG 14) focuses on conserving and sustainably using oceans, seas, and marine resources.
The High Seas Treaty (BBNJ—Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction Agreement) is a legally binding framework to protect marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction (international waters).
Sundarbans and Critical Slowing Down
A recent study indicates that the Sundarbans is undergoing a process of critical slowing down (a condition where ecosystems take longer to recover from disturbances and become increasingly unstable) due to cyclones, climate change, and human pressures.
About Sundarbans
The Sundarbans is the world’s largest mangrove forest (coastal forest ecosystem dominated by salt-tolerant vegetation).
It is located in the delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers along the Bay of Bengal, spanning India (about 40%) and Bangladesh (about 60%).
The region enjoys multiple layers of protection, being a UNESCO World Heritage Site, a Biosphere Reserve under the UNESCO Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme, and a Ramsar Site (wetland of international importance).
The Sundarbans is traversed by numerous rivers such as Muriganga, Raimangal, Harinbhanga, Saptamukhi, Thakuran, and Matla, forming a complex tidal ecosystem.
It supports the world’s largest population of Bengal Tiger, uniquely adapted to an amphibious lifestyle (ability to live both on land and in water).
The vegetation includes salt-tolerant (halophytic) plants such as the Sundari tree, which gives the region its name.
Supernova and Pair-Instability Supernova
Scientists have recently found evidence for pair-instability supernovas (a rare type of stellar explosion where the entire star is destroyed), highlighting new insights into the life cycle of massive stars.
A supernova is the explosive death of a star, during which it releases enormous energy and blasts stellar material into space, marking the end of its life cycle.
Typically, most supernovas leave behind a compact stellar remnant such as a neutron star (extremely dense collapsed core of a star) or a black hole (region with gravitational pull so strong that even light cannot escape).
These explosions are extremely energetic, often outshining their entire host galaxies, making them visible across vast distances in the universe.
However, in the case of pair-instability supernovas, which occur in very massive stars, the explosion is so powerful that the entire star is completely disrupted, leaving no remnant behind, unlike typical supernova events.
Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Roadmap
The Department of Science and Technology (DST) has released a national roadmap for Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) migration, aimed at developing encryption techniques secure against quantum computing attacks, thereby ensuring future cryptographic security and digital sovereignty (control over national digital infrastructure and data).
This roadmap has become necessary because advancements in quantum computing (next-generation computing using quantum mechanics) have the potential to break existing cryptographic systems, which currently secure IT systems, online communications, financial transactions, and sensitive data.
Specifically, widely used public-key encryption algorithms such as RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman) and ECC (Elliptic Curve Cryptography)—which rely on mathematical problems difficult for classical computers—can be easily broken by powerful quantum computers.
Risks of Quantum Computing to Cybersecurity
One major risk is the breaking of existing encryption, where quantum computers could decrypt banking systems, emails, and government communications, compromising confidentiality.
Another concern is “Harvest Now, Decrypt Later” (collecting encrypted data today and decrypting it in the future using quantum computers), which threatens long-term sensitive information security.
There is also a systemic risk, as breaking cryptographic systems could disrupt critical infrastructure sectors like power, telecommunications, finance, and governance systems.
Additionally, it poses a serious threat to national security, since exposure of defence and intelligence data could create strategic vulnerabilities.
India’s Efforts in Secure Quantum Technologies
India is addressing these challenges through the National Quantum Mission (NQM), which aims to build an indigenous quantum technology ecosystem with four thematic hubs focusing on research and development.
The Quantum-Enabled Science and Technology (QuEST) Programme of DST supports capacity building and training of young researchers in quantum technologies.
At the state level, initiatives such as the Amaravati Quantum Valley (AQV) Initiative in Andhra Pradesh, Quantum Mission in Karnataka, and the Telangana Quantum Strategy aim to develop regional quantum innovation ecosystems.
Pulsars and New Distance Measurement Technique
Indian scientists have developed a new method to measure distances in deep space by combining dispersion measure (distance estimation using delay in signals caused by free electrons) and scatter broadening (spreading and distortion of signals due to turbulence in interstellar plasma), improving the accuracy of cosmic distance calculations.
The dispersion measure works by measuring the time delay in pulsar signals as they pass through free electrons in space, which helps estimate how far the signal has travelled.
The scatter broadening technique complements this by analysing how signals spread and distort due to irregularities in interstellar plasma (ionised gas in space), providing additional information about distance and medium properties.
By combining both methods, the new approach overcomes limitations of existing models and enables more reliable and precise estimation of distances in space.
About Pulsars
Pulsars are highly magnetised, rapidly rotating neutron stars (dense remnants of massive stars after supernova explosions) that emit narrow beams of electromagnetic radiation from their magnetic poles.
As these beams sweep across Earth due to rotation, they appear as regular pulses, giving pulsars their name.
Owing to their extremely stable rotation, pulsars act as cosmic clocks (highly precise natural timekeepers) and are widely used in astrophysical measurements, including distance estimation and testing physical theories.
India’s Renewable Energy Status and Global Position
According to International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) Renewable Energy Statistics 2026, India ranks third globally in renewable energy installed capacity, after China and United States, highlighting its growing leadership in clean energy.
Significance of Promoting Renewable Energy (RE)
Promotion of renewable energy has led to reduced emissions, as seen in the decline in power sector emission intensity from 61.45 to 40.52 tonnes per ₹ crore (2015–2023), indicating cleaner energy production.
It enhances energy security by reducing dependence on imported fossil fuels, which is crucial during disruptions such as the West Asia crisis.
It also strengthens India’s strategic and global role by supporting Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs—climate commitments under Paris Agreement) and Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG 7), while reinforcing leadership in global renewable energy transition.
Status of Renewable Energy in India
India’s total renewable energy capacity stands at 274.68 GW (as of March 2026), reflecting substantial growth.
Solar energy is the leading contributor with 150.26 GW installed capacity, marking a 53.28 times increase since 2014, driven by large-scale solar initiatives.
Wind energy is the second-largest contributor, with over 56 GW capacity, playing a key role in the energy mix.
Other sources include large hydropower (51.41 GW), followed by bioenergy (11.75 GW), nuclear energy (8.78 GW), and small hydropower (5.17 GW), contributing to diversification.
Factors Making India a Leading RE Player
India has implemented sector-specific programmes such as the National Solar Mission, PM KUSUM (solarisation of agriculture), National Green Hydrogen Mission, National Bioenergy Programme, and small hydro initiatives, driving growth across sectors.
Financial and tax incentives, including GST reduction on renewable energy equipment and Basic Customs Duty exemptions, have improved investment attractiveness.
Policy and regulatory reforms such as Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPO—mandatory procurement of renewable energy), Virtual Power Purchase Agreements (contracts for renewable energy without physical delivery), and ease of doing business have facilitated expansion.
The government has strengthened infrastructure support through initiatives like the Green Energy Corridor (transmission network for renewable energy) and wind site mapping, ensuring better integration into the grid.
Efforts to promote domestic manufacturing and research & development (R&D) include quality control norms by MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy) and skill development programmes like Vayumitra (training for wind energy technicians).
Additionally, favourable geography (such as strong wind corridors in Tamil Nadu and Gujarat) and decentralised renewable energy initiatives further strengthen India’s position in the sector.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has constituted a Special Task Force to strategize agricultural resilience (ability of agriculture to withstand shocks like climate or geopolitical disruptions) in response to global geopolitical shifts affecting food systems.
About ICAR
ICAR, headquartered in New Delhi, was established as a registered society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860, originally named the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, based on recommendations of the Royal Commission on Agriculture (headed by Victor Hope, Lord Linlithgow).
It functions under the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, with the Union Minister of Agriculture serving as the ex-officio President (holding the position by virtue of office).
ICAR is the apex body for coordinating and guiding agricultural research and education in India, covering areas such as horticulture, fisheries, and animal sciences, and has played a key role in initiatives like the Green Revolution (agricultural transformation through high-yield varieties and inputs).
Key Initiatives of ICAR
ICAR operates Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) (district-level centres that connect agricultural research with farmers), facilitating technology transfer and capacity building at the grassroots level.
It also runs the National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) programme, aimed at enhancing resilience of Indian agriculture to climate change through adaptive technologies and practices.
Gourami Fossils Discovery
Scientists have recently discovered Gourami fish fossils in the foothills of the Shivalik Himalayas in Saharanpur, providing new insights into ancient freshwater ecosystems in India.
About the Discovery
These fossils date back to around 5 million years ago, belonging to the Pliocene Epoch (a geological period characterised by climatic changes and evolution of modern species).
The findings include otoliths (ear bones made of calcium carbonate used for balance and hearing in fish) of three freshwater fish types—Gourami, Snakeheads (Channa), and Gobies, indicating aquatic biodiversity.
Significance of the Discovery
This is the first fossil record of Gourami in India and only the second globally (the first being in **Sumatra), expanding knowledge of fish evolution and distribution.
The discovery challenges the earlier “terrestrial-only” understanding of the region, as the Shivalik zone was previously known mainly for land-based (terrestrial) fossils, not aquatic ones.
It provides evidence of a “lentic” freshwater ecosystem (water bodies like lakes or ponds with little or no flow), as Gourami fish typically inhabit calm or stagnant waters.
The presence of multiple species also indicates a complex food chain, as predators like snakeheads coexisted with prey such as gobies, suggesting a well-developed aquatic ecosystem.
India’s Move to Phase Down HFCs
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has directed all authorities to stop granting environmental clearances for new or expanded Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) production after December 31, 2027, aligning with India’s international climate commitments.
This decision is in line with India’s obligations under the Kigali Amendment, which mandates a gradual phase-down of HFCs (greenhouse gases used mainly in refrigeration and air conditioning).
About Kigali Amendment (2016)
Under the Kigali Amendment, Parties to the Montreal Protocol agreed to reduce production and consumption of HFCs, which, although non-ozone-depleting, have a very high Global Warming Potential (GWP—measure of heat-trapping ability) ranging from 12,000 to 14,000.
Globally, countries have committed to reduce HFC usage by 80–85% by the late 2040s, aiming to mitigate climate change impacts.
India has adopted a phased reduction plan starting from 2032, with targets of 10% reduction by 2032, 20% by 2037, 30% by 2042, and 85% by 2047, ensuring a gradual transition.
About Montreal Protocol (1987)
The Montreal Protocol (1987) is an international treaty designed to phase out ozone-depleting substances (ODS) to protect the ozone layer, and it operates under the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer.
It targets harmful substances such as Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and Halons, which damage the ozone layer.
The protocol achieved universal ratification by 1992 and is based on the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR—different obligations for developed and developing countries).
Ozone and Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS)
Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) are human-made chemicals containing chlorine or bromine, which can destroy ozone molecules in the atmosphere.
These substances reach the stratosphere (layer of atmosphere 10–40 km above Earth), where they undergo catalytic reactions (reactions that accelerate destruction) leading to ozone depletion.
The stratospheric ozone layer (often called “good ozone”) plays a crucial role in protecting Earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun, thereby safeguarding life on Earth.
Environmental (Utilisation of Crop Residue by TPPs) Rules, 2023
The Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) has penalised Thermal Power Plants (TPPs) for violating biomass co-firing norms under the Environmental (Utilisation of Crop Residue by TPPs) Rules, 2023, aimed at reducing air pollution.
About the 2023 Environmental Rules
These rules were notified under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, providing a legal framework for crop residue utilisation.
The rules mandate 5% biomass co-firing (mixing biomass like crop residue with coal for combustion) using paddy straw pellets in all coal-based thermal power plants, promoting sustainable fuel use.
For the transition phase, a minimum threshold of 3% biomass co-firing has been prescribed for FY 2024–25, ensuring gradual compliance.
The primary objective is to promote ex-situ crop residue management (using crop waste outside the farm instead of burning it) and curb stubble burning, especially in the National Capital Region (NCR).
The rules are applicable to the NCR and adjoining areas within a 300 km radius, targeting regions most affected by seasonal air pollution due to crop burning.
Elephanta Island Reservoir Discovery
The Archaeological Survey of India has unearthed a 1,500-year-old stepped reservoir (water storage structure with descending steps) on the Elephanta Island, indicating advanced water management practices in ancient India.
During excavation, copper coins were discovered and identified as belonging to Krishnaraja of the Kalachuri Dynasty, dating the structure to the 6th century CE.
About Kalachuri Dynasty
The Kalachuri dynasty originated as a Kshatriya tribe mentioned in Brahmanical epics and Puranas, indicating early historical roots.
The Early Kalachuris of Mahishmati (550–620 CE) ruled parts of present-day Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra, with notable rulers like Krishnaraja, Shankaragana, and Buddharaja.
The Kalachuris of Chedi (Tripuri), ruling around the 9th century CE near Jabalpur, had prominent rulers such as Kokalla I, Gangeyadeva, and Vijayasimha.
The Kalachuris of Kalyani (1156–1181 CE), founded by Bijjala II, ruled parts of Karnataka and Maharashtra, during which the Virashaiva (Lingayat) movement was initiated by Basavanna.
In terms of religion, the Kalachuris—especially of Chedi—patronised Brahmanical traditions, with strong devotion to Shaivism (worship of Shiva) and Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu).
They also supported Shakti worship and the Yogini cult, leading to the construction of 64-Yogini temples at places like Khajuraho, Bheraghat, and Shahdol.
Architecturally, they contributed significantly to rock-cut architecture, including Caves 6 and 7 at Aurangabad, and patronised sites like Elephanta, Ellora (Cave 29), and Jogeshwari.
About Elephanta Island and Caves
The Elephanta Islands, traditionally known as Gharapuri, are located off the coast of Mumbai.
Historically, the island came under the control of several dynasties and powers, including the Mauryas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Yadavas, Portuguese, Marathas, and British, reflecting its strategic importance.
The Elephanta Caves are a UNESCO World Heritage Site, renowned for their rock-cut architecture and sculptures dedicated to Lord Shiva.
The caves are especially famous for the Trimurti (three-headed Shiva sculpture), representing creation, preservation, and destruction, showcasing exceptional artistic and religious significance.
Hydro Electric Projects in Arunachal Pradesh
The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA), chaired by the Prime Minister, has approved the investment proposal for construction of Kalai-II and Kamala Hydro Electric Projects (HEPs) in Arunachal Pradesh, aiming to enhance renewable energy generation and regional development.
About the Projects
The Kalai-II Hydro Electric Project is located on the Lohit River, which is a major tributary of the Brahmaputra River, originating in eastern Tibet and flowing through Arunachal Pradesh into Assam, making it significant for hydropower potential.
The Kamala Hydro Electric Project is situated on the Kamla River, which is a tributary of the Subansiri River (itself a major tributary of the Brahmaputra), contributing to the river basin’s hydroelectric capacity.
Exercise Cyclone-IV
An Indian Army contingent will participate in the 4th edition of Exercise Cyclone-IV at Anshas, Egypt.
About Exercise Cyclone-IV
It is a bilateral India–Egypt jointSpecial Forces military exercise.
Objective: Enhance interoperability & joint operations capability.
Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) Scheme
The Cabinet has approved a 12% hike in Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) rates for Phosphatic and Potassic (P&K) fertilizers for the Kharif Season 2026, aiming to support farmers amid rising input costs.
About NBS Scheme
The Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) Scheme was launched in 2010 by the Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers to reform fertilizer subsidy distribution.
The scheme aims to promote balanced use of fertilizers (ensuring optimal mix of nutrients in soil) and reduce the subsidy burden on the government through efficient allocation.
Under NBS, the subsidy is linked to nutrient content, specifically Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), and Sulphur (S), rather than the product itself.
It covers 28 grades of Phosphatic and Potassic (P&K) fertilizers, including commonly used fertilizers like DAP (Di-Ammonium Phosphate) and Urea-SSP (Single Super Phosphate blends).
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI)
The Delhi High Court has ruled that the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) does not have the authority to regulate animal feed, as the definition of “food” under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 does not include animal feed.
About FSSAI
The FSSAI functions under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, which oversees public health and food safety.
It is a statutory body established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, providing a legal framework for food regulation in India.
Its core mandate is to lay down science-based standards and regulate the manufacture, storage, distribution, sale, and import of food, ensuring food safety and quality for consumers.
One of its major initiatives is Eat Right India, which promotes safe, healthy, and sustainable dietary practices among citizens.
The governing structure of FSSAI consists of a Food Authority comprising a Chairperson and 22 members, with one-third representation reserved for women, ensuring inclusive governance.
Women in India’s Evolving Credit Market
The NITI Aayog released the report titled “From Borrowers to Builders: Women and India’s Evolving Credit Market”, highlighting the growing participation of women in formal credit systems (institutional lending through banks and financial institutions).
Key Highlights of the Report
Women now hold ₹76 lakh crore in credit, accounting for 26% of total credit, indicating their increasing role in the financial ecosystem.
Their credit exposure (total amount of outstanding loans) has grown 4.8 times since 2017, with credit penetration rising to 36% (proportion of women accessing formal credit).
There is a noticeable shift in borrowing patterns, with women moving from microfinance (small loans for basic needs) to retail and business loans, reflecting increased financial empowerment and entrepreneurship.
The regional spread of credit access is also expanding, with significant growth observed in northern states such as Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, indicating broader financial inclusion beyond traditionally developed regions.
Skills Outcomes Fund (SOF)
The Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE) has initiated a campaign to build the Skills Outcomes Fund (SOF), aimed at enhancing employment-linked skill development for youth.
About Skills Outcomes Fund
The Skills Outcomes Fund (SOF) is a first-of-its-kind initiative designed to unlock aspirational livelihoods (sustainable and upward economic opportunities) for youth from low-income backgrounds.
It builds upon the success of the Skill Impact Bond (2021), launched by the National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC), which introduced an outcomes-based financing model (funding tied to results rather than inputs).
The Skill Impact Bond utilised private sector capital and expertise, focusing on job placement and retention (sustained employment) instead of merely training and certification, thereby improving effectiveness.
The SOF will also be anchored by NSDC, ensuring continuity and institutional support in implementation.
It adopts a blended finance model (combining public funds, private investment, and philanthropic capital) to create sustainable livelihood opportunities.
Importantly, funding under SOF is linked to verified employment outcomes, such as job placement and retention, ensuring accountability and measurable impact.
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